Throughout my experience in bilingual and international education, one question has continually shaped my professional reflection: beyond the many theories that explain language development, how do children really learn a new language?
Working in international schools where English is the language of instruction, I have often observed young learners communicating with increasing confidence long before they could explain a grammatical rule. They experimented with language, imitated expressions, negotiated meaning with their peers, and gradually began to make English their own.
At the same time, I also saw the importance of explicit teaching. Grammar, vocabulary, phonics and corrective feedback all played an essential role in helping children become increasingly accurate and independent users of language.
These observations led me to explore one of the most influential distinctions in second language acquisition: the difference between language acquisition and language learning. Understanding this distinction has profoundly shaped my perspective and continues to influence the way I design bilingual learning experiences.
This article is part of my comprehensive support for Phonics and Grammar Teaching in Bilingual Contexts.
A useful distinction: language acquisition vs language learning
In Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning (1981), linguist Stephen Krashen proposed that language develops through two complementary processes.
- Language acquisitionis a largely subconscious process, often coded as L1 or First Language. It occurs when learners are immersed in meaningful communication, focusing on understanding and expressing ideas rather than consciously studying grammar. Much like children acquire their first language, additional languages can also develop through rich, authentic and comprehensible interactions.
- Language learning, by contrast, is a conscious process typically associated with L2 or Second Language. It involves reflecting on language, studying grammatical structures, expanding vocabulary and developing an explicit understanding of how the language works.
Although these processes are often presented separately, classroom experience suggests that they should not be viewed as alternatives. Rather, they complement one another, each supporting different aspects of language development.
Beyond theory: what this means in bilingual classrooms
The distinction between acquisition and learning becomes particularly relevant in international schools, where the language of instruction is often different from the students’ native language, for example, English in Italy-based institutions. In this context, Second Language Learning (SLL) applies to any language learned later than earliest childhood (under age 4), including the language of instruction itself.
Children may spend most of their day learning through English while continuing to develop their home language outside school. For many, English is simultaneously the language of instruction, the language of friendship and an additional language.
This creates a unique educational context.
Children need opportunities to acquire English naturally through meaningful interaction, while also receiving explicit guidance that helps them organise, refine and extend their linguistic knowledge.
Research in bilingual education and second language acquisition has increasingly recognised that language development is influenced by cognitive, social and educational factors working together (Mitchell, Myles & Marsden, 2019). Rather than searching for a single teaching method, educators are encouraged to create learning environments where communication and explicit instruction reinforce one another.
In my experience, this balance is one of the defining characteristics of effective bilingual education.
For a concrete example of how these alignment principles are operationalised across five years of primary education, see [The English-Italian Literacy Timeline →].
Creating environments where language can grow
Understanding language acquisition changes the way we think about teaching.
It reminds us that children do not learn a language simply because they attend lessons. They learn because they are immersed in environments where language has purpose, where communication is meaningful and where they feel confident enough to participate.
Krashen described this as the importance of comprehensible input (i + 1): language that is slightly beyond the learner’s current level but remains understandable through context, interaction and appropriate support. However, a high-performance language program depends not just on exposure (input), but on intake: the specific portion of that language that students actually process, internalise, and turn into working knowledge.
Equally important is the emotional environment in which learning takes place. To lower what Krashen called the Affective Filter — a mental block caused by stress, low motivation, or anxiety that prevents instruction from reaching the acquisition system — schools must prioritise a supportive classroom climate. Children who feel secure, valued and encouraged are far more willing to take the linguistic risks that language development requires. Mistakes become opportunities for learning rather than reasons for anxiety.
For educators, this means carefully balancing challenge with reassurance, structure with flexibility, and explicit teaching with authentic communication.
The role of corrective feedback in Bilingual and IB Classrooms
One aspect of classroom practice that continues to fascinate me is corrective feedback.
How teachers respond to children’s language attempts has a profound influence on both confidence and progress. Correcting every mistake immediately may interrupt communication, while never addressing inaccuracies can allow misconceptions to become established over time.
Research by Lyster and Ranta (1997) highlighted the variety of feedback strategies available to teachers, showing that different approaches encourage different levels of learner engagement and self-correction. Their work reminds us that feedback is not simply about identifying errors but about supporting learners as they construct increasingly accurate language.
This perspective has greatly influenced my own practice.
Rather than viewing correction as an isolated event, I see feedback as part of an ongoing dialogue that encourages children to notice language, reflect on it, and gradually take greater ownership of their communication.
This collaborative negotiation of meaning helps students gain the cognitive accuracy needed for advanced academic IB education.
From research to classroom reflection
Educational theory becomes truly valuable when it helps teachers make informed decisions.
The distinction between acquisition and learning is not simply a theoretical debate. It influences how we organise classrooms, how we interact with children, how we introduce literacy, and how we design language experiences that support both fluency and accuracy.
As educators, we are not choosing between acquisition and learning.
We are creating the conditions in which both can flourish.
A resource to support professional dialogue
[Download the Language Acquisition vs Learning Feedback Chart PDF →]
The downloadable resource accompanying this article was developed as part of that reflection.
Drawing on the work of Krashen, Lyster and Ranta, together with more recent perspectives on second language acquisition, it summarises key concepts and classroom implications in a format designed to support professional learning, teacher discussions and school-based reflection.
It is not intended as a prescriptive framework, but as an invitation to think more deeply about how children experience language throughout their school day.
Like all the resources shared on this website, it reflects an ongoing professional journey; one that continues to evolve through research, classroom experience and dialogue with educators working across different bilingual and international contexts.
Ultimately, my aim is that it encourages us to move beyond the question of how we teach language and towards a more fundamental one:
How do children experience language as they learn, communicate and grow?
Because when we begin with that question, teaching naturally becomes more thoughtful, more responsive and, above all, more meaningful.
Understanding Language Acquisition and Language Learning: Moving Forward
Optimizing the balance between how children naturally acquire language and how they consciously learn it is more than a pedagogical choice; it is a commitment to the way our school communities experience communication every day.
If you would like to explore how your school’s language policy can explicitly integrate these research insights to support your faculty and bilingual learners, I invite you to book a consultation to discuss your specific institutional context.
References
Krashen, S. D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Pergamon Press.
McLaughlin, B. (1987). Second-language acquisition in childhood. Ablex Publishing.
Mitchell, R., Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2019). Second language learning theories (4th ed.). Routledge.
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